Comparative Ritual Theory

I: Methods of Comparison

1.     Explain the difference between "reductionist" theories of ritual comparison and "antireductionist" theories. (min. 200 words)

Reductionism is the theory that religion and ritual practices can be “reduced” to another root source.  Sigmund Freud believed that religion was simply a result of mental distress while Emile Durkheim believed that religion existed only as a result of sociological need.  Meanwhile, Karl Marx believes that religion is the offspring of class struggle and misery (Pals).  No matter what cause they are blaming, all of these theories disregard the idea that spirituality and religious experiences had any legitimacy in themselves.  Instead, they each viewed religious practices as the effect of something more important, hidden deep in the psyche of humankind.

Antireductionism, on the other hand, take the opposite approach viewing religion as something that cannot be broken down beyond spirituality itself.  Mircea Eliade’s approach to reductionism indicates that religion is irreducible.  By reducing spirituality into an effect of some other root cause you are eliminating the intent behind it and dismissing the sacred nature of the beliefs (Allen).  Eliade called reductionism archaic and believed that religion is more meaningful than many aspects of society because it helps humanity find “cosmic order” when the world is often chaotic.  Additionally, Max Weber believed that spiritual systems were fundamental as a basic part of the human mind (Pals). 

2.     In your opinion, in what ways has the academic study of religion affected ADF's ritual structure? (100 words min.)

Academic study is one of the pieces of ADF that I appreciate the most.  We look at the historical data available to us and work to utilize them in a way that is acceptable in modern society.  Many of the elements found in our Core Order of Ritual are based in the historical practices of the Indo-European people, such as the purification and cosmic structures that we call upon.  However, when we utilize items that were not utilized by this group of people, such as the use of a gatekeeper, we acknowledge this without trying to re-write history.  We explore the different cultures and look for the similarities between them to build a unified ritual structure, while respecting the differences between them.  In my experience, academic study helps to solidify and unify our practices with those of the ancient practitioners, and I am extremely appreciative of that connection.

II: Methods of Ritual Study

1.   Select two different theorists covered by the recommended reading list and read one of the sources listed by or about each of them. Summarize their arguments about ritual, describe where they differ, and explain which argument is more applicable in your view, as well as why you feel it is more applicable. (no min. word count)

Obsessive Actions and Religious Practices – Sigmund Freud

Sigmund Freud had a very specific set of views about religion.  As a reductionist, he believed that religion and religious practices could be broken down into root psychological causes.  He believed that very religious and ceremonial people belonged in the same group as those people who may suffer from obsessive thinking and impulse control issues (Freud). He says that he believes that most pious actions are done without the person examining why those actions are important or exploring what they signify, and that only clergy or those who dig deeper are aware of the underlying meaning.

Freud also states that religion is built on a base of suppression of certain human impulses as a way to prevent those actions that are egotistical or socially harmful from taking place.  He believed that religion creates a sense of guilt caused by the continual temptation of those suppressed impulses and the fear of punishment from deities. Because of this guilt, religious people build ceremonial actions to defend against those types of temptations and protect them from harm, such as confession of sins or a marriage ceremony, which Freud views as a ceremony used only for “sanctioning of sexual enjoyment which would otherwise be sinful” (Freud)

Freud is willing to admit that there are differences between neurotic ceremonies and sacred religious acts and even says that to make a comparison between the two is “sacrilege” (Freud).  He says that religious acts have significance in their symbolism while neurotics are foolish.  The chief difference between the two, from his perspective, is that neurotic obsessions tend to have a sexual root cause, while religion may be developed because of other root sources.  However, despite this comparison being “sacrilegious,” Freud continues to say that neurosis is an “individual religiosity” while religion is a “universal obsessional neurosis” (Freud). 

The Bare Facts of Ritual by Jonathan Z Smith

Jonathan Z. Smith also takes an interesting approach to explaining ritual.  After reading through this article, I believe that Smith could also be viewed as a reductionist.  However, he does not believe that the root cause of religion is psychological distress.  Instead, Smith explores the idea that rituals give people the opportunity to bring order to their universe.  He says that once you enter a ritual space nothing is “accidental” and everything has some sort of significance because these spaces act as a “focusing lens” which reveals the importance (Smith).  He states that the ordinary becomes significant by being in that sacred space and having attention directed to it ritual. 

Smith takes the time to explore hunting rituals, and the explanations we have about them. He also explains that what we see in the ritual writings incongruent with actual hunting behavior.  They speak of killing the animals in peaceful ways with little violence or struggle, while in reality the results are rarely peaceful.  Hunting rituals, therefore, were used to accommodate that discrepancy and overcome that difference between desire and action.  Smith describes ritual as a “controlled environment” where you are able to perform a rite in the way things should be and acknowledge the inconsistency between ideal and real life.  He claims that ritual “gains force” when the inconsistencies between the two is actually acknowledged and explored.  My favorite explanation he uses for rituals is that they represent the “ideal of reciprocity” (Smith).  He explains that magic itself isn’t an attempt to manipulate the world, but instead to acknowledge that the world cannot be manipulated.

Where They Differ

            There are definitely some similarities between Freud and Smith’s ideals.  Most clearly, both of them seem to remove the sacred nature of religion from ritual itself, reducing it to a way to deal with an external source instead.  However, from that point forward their approaches are much different.  Freud believed that religious rituals were essentially a group case of neurotic obsessive behavior.  Meanwhile, Smith acknowledges that this approach is problematic.  Instead, he sees ritual as something that is important and significant to help reconcile the differences between the chaos of real life and the ideal way we would like things to go.  

Which Argument is More Applicable in My View?  Why?

            Realistically, I understand the perspective that Freud is coming from, where rituals are repeated and become essentially habit that people are afraid to break for fear of the divine, and for some people I can believe this to be the case (without the unnecessary underlying sexual root cause).  However, I believe that Smith’s approach is more applicable to my view of ritual.  Ritual can be an effective way to help reconcile your actions with the virtues that you are looking to follow.  I see this in our COoR when we re-create the cosmos as a way to bring order to the chaos of every day life.  Additionally, I appreciate Smith’s view that mundane things are sacred simply because they are part of a ritual.  That being said, I don’t necessarily agree that we don’t have the ability to change the world around us through our actions.

2.   The study of ritual often indicates that religion is a "problem to be solved." How does this aspect of ritual studies affect your experience of ritual? (min. 150 words)

Admittedly in my day to day practice, the theory that religion is a “problem to be solved” does not impact my personal ritual experiences.  However, I think it does have a impact at a group or organizational level.  When the philosopher Victoria Harrison describes religion as a problem to be solved, she is referring to the difficulties that are presented when a society faces religious diversity and the issues that may come about in those circumstances (Burley).  For example, if you have a diverse religious community with multiple doctrines and belief systems all of which have their own set of rules and ideal behaviors, these rules may not align, which may cause other issues on a society as a whole.   While we can’t necessarily resolve this, in my local community we do try to at least address this diversity.  My grove rotated which pantheon we celebrated throughout the calendar year to provide diversity to our attendees. We also wrote in explanations throughout our rites to describe our cosmology and the ritual structure we use to make even those who may have never seen a COoR rite feel like they understood what was going on.   It’s not perfect, but often by providing diversity and acknowledging our own practices we help make those who are not part of the group feel more comfortable and welcome.

III: Applications

1.       Choose a single heading in the ADF Core Order of Ritual and explain why this part of the ritual was included in the way it was, and in the place it was, using the theories of one of the theorists listed above as the basis of your argument. (no min. word count)

Purification is an important part of ADF ritual, occurring very near the beginning of all COoR rites.  Using the theory of Jonathan Smith, purification could be viewed as a method of bringing order into our ritual and to establish a sense of cleanliness. Purification is a ritualistic way to cleanse the participants and allow themselves to express their ideal circumstance with clean hands, head, and heart even when they may be experiencing something very different in the mundane world.

Contrarily, if we use the theory of Freud, purification would be viewed as a compulsive need for the participant to cleanse themselves as a part of their psychological neurosis.  We would have a need to perform this purification rite in order to “right” ourselves with the world and satiate the obsession in our minds that make us feel dirty and unclean. 

2.       Provide a description of a ritual that went very well (in your opinion). Drawing on at least two theorists you have read for this course, explain why this ritual went well. (150 words for description, 200 words for explanation)

Ritual Description

For Samhain each year, my grove takes part in a ritual that focuses upon the Ancestors as our beings of occasion.   We intentionally keep the ritual hearth-culture free to make sure that everyone who chooses to participate can feel welcome and involved in the ritual itself.  During the invocation, we call upon the ancestors of heart, the ancestors of land, and the ancestors of blood, allowing people to include whomever they want as their own personal ancestors no matter the DNA connection they may or may not hold.  However, the most important portion of this ritual is during the “praise offerings” section of the ritual.  We give every participant the opportunity to come forward and give offerings to their own personal ancestors, and to share their stories with the group.  No one is required to share, but it’s rare that we have anyone who doesn’t have at least one person they wish to honor.  Often during this ritual there are many tears shed by those who have lost someone close, but they are also provided comfort if they desire it by the group itself. This ritual is not only one of our most well-attended rites each year, but it’s also the one that seems to form the closest bonds between our participants.

Mirce Eliade

            Eliade’s theories seem to express that rituals and religion are a way for humans to find balance in the world and to help re-establish a sense of order in their lives when things are a challenge.  Using this theory would make the success of this ritual easy to explain.  When we lose some one we love often our world feels like it’s completely turned upside down and any sense of norm we have is full of upheaval.  By providing a ritual where we acknowledge those loved ones and provide the space for someone to publicly mourn their loss, we are helping them find that balance once again.

Emile Durkheim

On the other end of the spectrum, Emile Durkheim viewed religion as a sociological need for humans who feel the need to connect to those humans who surround them.  This theory can also easily be utilized to explain the success of this ritual without difficulty.  As humans, losing someone we love hurts our hearts and can make the experiences of daily life more challenging.  Attending a ritual where you are given the opportunity to share your own sorrow and remember your loved ones can help to soothe some of that hurt.  The community as a whole has the opportunity to both provide support for their fellow human beings while also receiving support for their own heartache.  It gives those who participate an opportunity re-establish that sociological need for connection and realize that they are part of a bigger picture.

3.       Provide a description of a ritual that went very poorly (in your opinion). Drawing on at least two theorists you have read for this course, explain why this ritual went poorly. (150 words for description, 200 words for explanation)

Ritual Description

Several years ago, I attended a ritual of a local eclectic Pagan group.  The group was desperately unorganized to the point that they were still writing the ritual when those of us who were attending arrived at the ritual space and the rite itself started over an hour late.  Because it had not been prepared in advance and the leaders were inexperienced in public ritual, all of the parts ended up being read from a script.  While I understand that occasionally a ritual script is necessary, most of the readers for this ritual were essentially covering their faces with the papers, and there was a high amount of vehicle traffic so many of the words were lost upon the crowd.  The ritual contained no interaction with the attendees, or even between the participants.  Looking around the crowd, I could see people yawning and looking around, while we were supposed to be focused on the Beltane celebration.   Overall, the rite itself felt imprecise and unpolished which left the attendees feeling annoyed and unsatisfied.

Emile Durkheim

Drawing once again upon Emile Durkheim, I think it’s easy to understand why this ritual felt unsuccessful. Durkheim’s theory indicates that religion is an expression of a sociological need.  However, by providing a ritual that is unprepared and disconnected, this need is going unfulfilled.  Participants came to the ritual looking to make a connection to their community but instead left the rite with no deeper connection than they had upon arrival.  In fact, for some people, this may have made them feel further disconnected because they had reached out looking for something and failed to find it in this rite.

Jonathan Smith

Jonathan Smith describes rituals as a way to bring order to the universe and find balance when life is chaotic. Using this explanation, it’s once again easy to see why the ritual did not feel successful.  The rite itself was chaotic and unplanned.  The unpolished nature of the rite itself made the time spent in ritual feel chaotic, so it did not fulfill its job to help the participants feel more balanced and ordered. Additionally, by allowing the participants to feel disconnected and uninvolved, it lost the ability to create a space where the ritual and items involved felt sacred.  This disconnect made this rite feel like a failure as there was no order created, or sacred space experienced.

4.       Attend two rituals from different religions (neither of these religions may be a Neo-Pagan religion). Compose a research paper comparing these two rituals (or aspects of them) to all or part of the ADF Core Order of Ritual, using the tools learned in this course. (min. 2500 words)

Westside Church – Contemporary Christian Church 6/3/18

The first ritual that I chose to attend was the Sunday rite of a contemporary Christian church named Westside Church. This is a very large and very popular church in our area with multiple locations and live-streamed services.  There was a large number of attendees in stadium styled seating, with those who were active in the service standing on a stage at the front of the room.  Because of the sheer volume of people there was very little participation with the membership in general, instead being limited only to pre-selected volunteers.  The space was set up like a concert with projected screens and microphones.  Additionally, there was no altar on the stage itself, only a small podium that was used by the minister.  The minister had no “uniform” or distinguishing characteristics to indicate who he was and was the third person to speak to the crowd so I wasn’t sure he was the minister until he actually began his sermon.  It had been a very long time since I had attended a Christian church service, so I wasn’t sure what to expect. 

Initiating the Rite

The rite began with a brief welcome and a prayer.  They utilized familiar phrases to help people feel more connected, such as “This is the day the lord has made.  Let us rejoice and be glad in it.” While the words used to initiate the rite were different than those we utilize, using phrases that are familiar to the community would allow the group to establish a group mind and give a clear-cut beginning to their rite.

Purification

Additionally, included this prayer was a statement that to me sounded like a form of purification: “I pray that those who are here have ears to hear, eyes to see, and a heart ready to receive all that you have in store for us today.”  I was pleasantly surprised to hear this phrasing because, outside of the Catholic Mass, I have rarely seen a form of purification within Christian services. 

Earth Mother

While the Earth Mother was not specifically mentioned, the initiating prayer they utilized seemed familiar to the way we speak to her.  In their prayer, they gave honor and glory to God, thanking him for the gifts in their lives, and asking for his continued blessings. 

At this point in their service, announcements were made and people were given the opportunity to greet one another.  This space felt very disconnected as someone who didn’t know anyone there.  There was also a lot of silent time with no music, so that felt a bit odd to me.  Eventually, the attention was returned to the stage, and the church band began to play a song.  There was no notice to the members of which song would be played that I could tell.  The song itself was much more contemporary than many churches, including guitar and drums in the band line-up.  At this point, their ceremony verged away from the order of the COoR, while still having some similar elements.

Calling, Hallowing, and Affirming the Blessings

At this point in their service, the attendees were offered communion, which to me matches with our idea of the blessings.  However, it did feel like an odd placement in the ritual as there had thus far been no sermon or invocations, but only the introduction and some music.  Communion was offered to attendees “regardless of what denomination you come from, as long as you believe Jesus is the god and free from sin.”  Essentially, by calling members forward to claim their blessings, those people are affirming that they want to receive said blessings. 

As the attendees approached the stage, the minister ‘transformed’ the bread and juice into body and blood of Christ. This transformation is indicative of hallowing the blessings, confirming that they are the body and blood of Christ.  The priest then said a brief prayer to Jesus to thank him for his gifts to the world and the blessings that communion represents.  They prayed that he used these blessings to “expand his kingdom” as well as “turn and awaken the hearts of those who need him.”  This prayer seemed to take the place of calling for the blessings, so while items seemed to be done in an order different than our own, each of the pieces of our blessing rite seemed to be represented.  The communion was then given to the attendees while the church band quietly played in the background. 

Working/Praise Offerings

At this time, the minister also called for “prayers, tithes, and offerings” and they passed the basket to collect those items from the attendees.  While our practices allow for people to give offerings to the Kindreds themselves, this offering was instead asking for a gift to the church and not to God.  However, the inclusion of prayer requests does seem like something that we could use for a ritual, allowing people to ask for prayers or working for them.  However, most often we would actually allow people to make those prayers or offerings themselves during the Praise Offerings section of our rituals.

Statement of Purpose 

            After offerings had been collected, the minister began to speak to the attendees.  He actually started with a denomination representation vote that would allow him to attend a conference on his behalf.  While there was only one option presented, the fact that the church membership was allowed to vote on this matter surprised me a lot.  I was happy to see some sort of democratic decision making in an organization like this. 

            The vote was completed and the minister began to give his sermon “Managing Emojis – Prayer”.  He talked about the idea that people will say “I’m praying for you” while in reality they are just saying it.  He expressed the importance of prayer and describes the principles of prayer as found in the bible.  Up until this point, I was pleased with how connected and welcomed I felt in the church.  Unfortunately, it was the sermon that lead me away from any comfort I had.  The minister made a statement indicating that someone asked him why Jesus would talk to God when he is also God.  The minister’s response was “It’s not our place to question God’s actions but you will have to ask him when you see him.”  The minister insinuating that there is no room for questioning or trying to understand the teachings was unsettling to me.  I’m obviously much more comfortable in an environment that doesn’t demand that I follow a dogma.  He discussed a need he felt to “pray to send away the darkness” that has taken over the city of Pueblo, Colorado, which had “become a seed bed for the occult and new age.”  Needless to say, I felt less than welcome to discuss life with the minister from this point forward.  Later in his sermon, the minister also made the statement “If you want to lose weight, fasting for 40 days will sure do it.”  These types of phrases made by the minister felt irresponsible to me, and I was definitely disheartened at his message to the community.

            However, while there are many items in this sermon that I wholeheartedly disagreed with or felt offended by, there were a few gems in there that were useful.  He explored the difference between fellowship and relationships when communicating with God.  He stated that confessing sin consistently builds that relationship with God, which is deeper than a fellowship achieved by just attending mass once a week. This description to me felt like the effort we put into building *ghosti relationships with the Kindreds, giving to them and receiving blessings from them in return. 

            Additionally, the minister gave some tips for how to pray in several ways.  He stated that you should pray to your personal god and give praise in those prayers.  It’s ok to be loud or emotional in your prayers.  He said to pray petitions for your daily needs, direction, or forgiveness of sins.  He encouraged prayers for your pastors and those in leadership. However, he also said “You need a new wife?  You got one, just pray for it” which again feels irresponsible and unrealistic.  He finished his sermon by saying you should pray persistently, pray with promise, and pray positively. 

Thanking the Beings and Closing the Rite

As the minister ended his sermon, he said a prayer thanking God for his blessings and seeking to build relationships and guidance.   He then invited those in the crowd forward if they felt the need to have someone pray for them and the leaders of the church prayed with individual members as needed. We also thank those Kindreds that we have invited to our rituals before leaving our rites, so this aspect felt familiar to our practices.

What was missed?

There were definitely items from the Core Order of Ritual that are not acknowledged in this rite, and I fully expected them to be missing.  There was no creation of the cosmos or a sacred space, which means there was no gate opening or inclusion of a gatekeeper.  Additionally, there was no omen, or acknowledgment of the nature spirits or other gods, which I also expected to be the case. There was brief acknowledgment of at least some ancestors as the minister discussed the disciples and their actions, but in general they were not acknowledged.  However, it wasn’t these missing items that made this ceremony feel disconnected for me.  It was the way the minister spoke to his community that made me feel unwelcomed.  While I don’t think this was intended, it was definitely the result of my time at this church.

Temple Israel - Reform Jewish Congregation 6/8/18

The second service that I chose to attend was that of a Reformed Jewish Congregation called Temple Israel.  I was actually quite nervous as I had never attended a Jewish event before.  This temple was much more traditional than the Christian service I had attended the week before. The temple was small, with standard pews and a small stage with an altar and stained-glass windows behind it. I was very interested to see that there were two rabbis (one a man and one a woman) that were leading the rite together.  Our rituals regularly have multiple people leading them, so this was a pleasant surprise.  Additionally, the Rabbis wore stoles, similar to our clergy over the top of their dress clothes. 

Initiating the Rite

            The service began with music as one of the rabbi’s played a short song on an acoustic guitar.  They then took the time to establish a group mind by encouraging the attendees to turn and greet one another.  The rabbi then again led the congregation in a song, encouraging audience participating by giving the song name and page number before beginning.  The song itself was beautiful, although it was in Hebrew so I’m unsure of the words themselves.

Statement of Purpose

            After the song, the rabbis took turns speaking back and forth.  The congregation was welcomed to the Shabbat celebration, and they explained that they welcome the Shabbat by lighting candles.  As an outsider, I truly appreciated the explanations about what was going on since I was unfamiliar with their practices.  My grove always tried to include explanations in our rites for this exact reason.  

Purification

As the candles were lit, one of the rabbis said “give light to all who behold us, so we may be among our days those who kindle the light.”  This was a beautiful sentiment that I actually believe I will incorporate into my own personal practice when lighting my hearth flame.  It also felt like a purification both of the temple itself and of those participants who were there. This was again followed by a song in Hebrew. 

Key Offerings

            After the song, the performed a call to worship, which included a group prayer.  This prayer was presented as a call and response, which is something we utilize regularly in our COoR public rites.  The rabbi then gave a brief prayer to Adonai that was in Hebrew so I am unsure what exactly was said.  Again, it’s not uncommon for ADF rituals to include a language other than English, especially to help form a deeper connection with the hearth culture that is being utilized in the ritual.  However, the prayer ended with the words “Let there be love and understanding among us.  Let peace and friendship be our shelter from life’s storm.”  Again, this is an incredibly beautiful sentiment that nearly brought me to tears as the congregation sang a song together.  The rabbis then spoke about the importance of rest on Shabbat and stated “may all who hunger find fulfillment on this day.”

Calling, hallowing, and affirming the blessings

            The rabbi then asked for blessings from Adonai.  She asked that Adonai strengthen the bonds of friendship and fellowship between all the people in the lands.  This was then followed by a moment of silent prayer.  Again, I was blown away by the peaceful and loving message that was expressed throughout this service. 

Working

            After the silence had passed, the rabbis asked for prayers of healing for those who were ill within the community.  The names of those who were ill were read to the group, and then the congregation together sang a song to send healing energies to those people. This magical rite was very unexpected, probably because of how unfamiliar I was with Jewish practices.  It definitely seemed like something that we could, and would, utilize within the Core Order of Ritual and ADF practices in general.

            After the healing ritual, the sermon was presented by one of the rabbis.  He read from Alexander and the Terrible, Horrible, No Good, Very Bad Day, as well as Numbers 14.  He explained that the community had a bad day and was wishing for death. Something bad had happened and the ancestors felt the end was near, so they imagined timelines where they had never left Egypt.  Their rabbi said “in a place without people, strive to be human. We find ourselves surrounded by people who are speaking things that are not the truths we see in our own lives.”  He encouraged people to not be like Alexander in the book who just goes to sleep and hopes tomorrow is better, but instead to be like Caleb in Numbers, to enter a space and stand up and say “we can’t do that” or “that’s not right”.  He encouraged people to stand up for what is right and speak from their hearts. This sermon was so much more uplifting and connecting than the sermon I experienced at the Christian church.  I felt welcomed and positively impacted by the message that he was sharing.

            At this point in the service, the rabbis turned to a large cabinet at the back of the stage and revealed a beautiful altar that had previously been hidden behind a set of doors.  There were scrolls and cloths, including one with a large, beautiful tree.  The congregation joined together in another Hebrew song and the rabbis sang directly into the cabinet. In the middle of the song, they both bowed in front of the shrine, which seemed like a very effective use of ritual body position.  The song ended and the cabinet was once again closed.

Inviting the Ancestors

            While the Christian service I attended briefly mentioned the disciples as ancestors, the rabbis of this temple actually took the time to remember those members who have passed on from the world.  The listed the names of those who have passed away and had each of their families stand so they could be provided love and support from their community.  The reading of these names went on for several minutes, so I’m not sure how far back they read into the history, but it was moving to see so many people acknowledged and sharing their mourning together.  It reminded me of our Samhain rituals.     After the names were all read, there was a group prayer of support, and the participants once again took their seats.

Closing the Rite

The rabbi sang a brief Hebrew song over a chalice before consuming the contents of it.  This was followed by one final song and a closing benediction.  At this point, I expected to see the rabbis process out of the room but was instead pleasantly surprised to see them join their congregation and join in the hugs and fellowship that was happening among those in attendance.

What was missing?

            Once again, there are parts of this ceremony that align easily with the Core Order of ritual, while there are several others that are missing, such as the acknowledgement of the cosmos, opening and closing of the gates, and invocation of the Nature Spirits.  However, despite those items not being included, I felt incredible comfortable and welcomed in this temple. I had no previous knowledge about Jewish temple rituals prior to attending this rite so I was very nervous, especially after the previous week’s experience.  However, the message of love and respect that flowed throughout this ceremony was beautiful and touching.  While there were parts in Hebrew that I wish I understood, I never once felt that they were speaking poorly of people who may not believe what they believe, or don’t fit into their group.  It was an amazing experience.

Works Cited

Allen, Douglas. Myth and Religion in Mircea Aliade. New York and London: Routledge, 2002.

Burley, Mikel. "Religious Diversity and Conceptual Schemes: Critically Appraising Internalist Pluralism." Sophia: International Journal of Philosopy & Traditions (2018): 1-17.

Freud, Sigmund. "Obsessive Actions and Religious Practices." Grimes, Ronald L. Readings in Ritual Studies. Ed. Ronald L. Grimes. Upper Saddle River: Prentice Hall, n.d.

Pals, Daniel L. Eight Theories of Religion. New York: Oxford University Press, 2006.

Smith, Jonathan Z. Imagining Religion: From Babylon to Jonestown. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982.