Pagan Theology 1

1.   Define the following terms in your own words, with support and examples from one of the resources above: Ontology, Cosmogony, Cosmology, Soteriology, Teleology, Theodicy, Apologetics, and Sacrament. (Minimum 100 words per definition)

Ontology

            Ontology is the philosophical study of existence and reality.  It explores the idea of the presence of beings and the hierarchy of those beings.  One example of this type of philosophical argument is Anselm’s case for classical monotheism.  Anselm argues that his god is the “greatest being that can be conceived” and because a person can understand that idea, the god exists.  He further expands on that by saying it is better to be necessary than to exist by chance.  Because his god has been defined as the “greatest being that can be conceived,” and necessary is greater than incidental, his god has to exist (Greer).  There are many logical fallacies in this argument, but it is one example of ontological arguments.

Cosmogony

Cosmogony is a philosophical study of the creation of the universe as we know it.  Cosmogony includes ideas such as the Big Bang Theory or Creationism to explain where the cosmos originated from.   Many of the Indo-European cultures we work with have a creation myth of some sort to explain this philosophical idea.  The Greeks explain the creation of the universe as coming forth from Chaos, while, the Norse creation myth includes frost giants, a cow, deities, death, and dwarves.  Each creation myth varies in explanation, but the purpose stays the same, to give a justification for why the universe exists.

Cosmology

Cosmology is the study of the evolution of the universe.  Within philosophy, cosmology explores the reason and purpose for the cosmos in combination with the origin of the universe.  One explanation of cosmology presented by Bertrand Russell states that all things exist because of “contingencies”, essentially saying that nothing happens without a reason (Greer).   For example, an oak tree stands in your yard.  The oak tree only exists because a seed was left buried in the ground.  The seed was left in the ground because a squirrel forgot where it had been hidden.   You can continue further and further back, finding cause after cause, to the beginning of the universe.  Therefore, because we exist, and nothing happens without a reason, there must be a reason that the universe was created.   This is just one explanation of cosmogony, and it’s a complicated, thought-spiraling theory, but I find it fascinating to undertake nonetheless. 

Soteriology

Soteriology is the philosophical study of the religious idea of salvation.  This study explores the idea that humans can be saved or liberated from negativity if they follow a specific set of actions or dogma.  The idea of salvation indicates that there is an “essential problem” with humanity that can only be solved through the “right religion” (Greer).  Pagan beliefs rarely contain a necessity for salvation as described in many monotheistic religions.  However, Greer explains that some religious tradition finds this problematic since Pagans do not deal with the “essential problem” found in humanity, and therefore are punished in the afterlife for their lack of acknowledgement. 

Teleology

Teleology is a philosophical study that explains existence and reality and the purpose for existence, or the ultimate goal of that being.  It also explores the idea that these goals may not fit in an easily explained natural pattern.   One example of a teleological argument is the existence of birds.  The idea that there were numerous coincidences that occurred throughout thousands of years that allowed birds to evolve with useful wings is a challenging idea to comprehend.  However, if the ‘purpose’ of the bird was to fly, an intelligent being would have designed the bird to do exactly that, making change after change to eventually reach this goal.  This is a justification of the existence of a god or other intellectual being responsible for designing life, at least for birds (Greer).

Theodicy

Theodicy is a philosophical study that explains the presence of evil if an all-knowing, all powerful deity exists.  It has several possible arguments to justify this evil ranging arguments that evil is caused by free will, to the idea that god permits evil things to happen.  There are four major types of theodicy throughout the ages.  The first is the thought that evil is caused by the inappropriate use of free will.  The second is that god allows bad things to happen because it allows humans to gain an understanding of morality.  The third type of theodicy indicates that god actually causes bad things to happen, which eliminates the idea that “god is good” the way it’s traditionally perceived.  The final type of theodicy is the idea that god has a reason for allowing evil that humans may not understand (Greer).  

Apologetics

Apologetics is the practice of defending religious doctrine and dogma from criticism made by non-believers.  One example of apologetics ties back into teleology and the debate between evolution and creationism.  Defenders of creationism believe that the universe was a product of design, which requires a powerful, intelligent being to exist as the creator (Greer).  This belief stems from Christian religious doctrine, in the form of the book of Genesis in the Bible.  In the book of Genesis, the creation of the universe by God is explained in detail as a process that takes only seven days.  By following this religious doctrine, and defending their stance based only upon these teachings, the believers are practicing apologetics.  

Sacrament

Sacraments are religious rituals that are viewed as extremely important in the life of the followers of a spiritual tradition.  Within Christian beliefs, this may include rituals such as baptism, marriage, and communion. The Christian act of communion is a ritual that embodies the relationship Christians have with their god.  The bread and wine take on the imagery of the body and blood of Jesus after being consecrated by the minister, and are then consumed by the believers, representing the sacrifice that was made by god, and the blessings that the people received because of it (Greer).  Every person and spiritual path may have their own set of important rituals that vary from this, including coming of age rites or funerary practices.

2.   Is it appropriate to discuss "theology" from a Neopagan point of view? Does the term apply to the work we do? If it does not apply, do you feel there is a better term? (Minimum 100 words)

Theology is defined as “the study of religious faith, practice, and experience, especially the study of God and of God’s relation to the world.” (Merriam-Webster).  Looking at this definition, I can understand why some people may believe that it isn’t the appropriate term for study in Neopaganism.  It seems to emphasize the idea that there is a single deity, therefore seeming inherently biased against Neopaganism and other polytheistic belief systems.  However, if you explore the etymology of the word itself, theology actually comes from the Greek word theologia, which means “an account of the gods” (Online Etymology Dictionary).  Breaking the word down into parts theoi is the Greek word for Gods, and logos which is the word for plan or reason.  Essentially, theology would be the plan of the gods.  I think this is a perfect description of religious exploration, so I fully support the use and study of theology.  I think the Christian focus of the English language has just made it seem like the wrong word to use.

3.   Summarize the arguments of two ancient defenders of paganism or pagan philosophers (not mythographers) regarding the following aspects of ancient religion: (Minimum 100 words per defender/philosopher, per question)

Why do statues of deities not constitute idolatry?

Greer explains that statues of deities are a type of “divine metaphor” allowing polytheists to see statues of deities as an expression of their spirituality, and not as a false idol that misrepresents or replaces the deities being honored (Greer).  However, looking at ancient pagan philosophers there are a couple of different perspectives. 

Celsus was a Greek philosopher from the second century.  He explains that statues are made by man, so they are obviously no replacement for the gods.  Things made by normal humans are no replacement for the powers and relationships of gods, so it isn’t possible for them to be an idol of those beings.  Celsus’s opinion on this is actually quite strong and he goes so far as to say that it is stupid to pray to statues if you don’t already know the gods they represent (Cook 92) and that only a child would believe that a statue of any sort was a god (Cook 237).   He also points out that the Bible claims that God made humans in his own image, and so statues of deities that look like humans may be more accurate than some people want to believe. 

            Porphyry of Tyre was a philosopher from Rome during the third century.  His explanations about why statues of deities are not idolatry is a bit different.  First, he points out that Christians worship their god inside of a temple that is built by human hands.  They view those buildings as holy places, even though they were not created by God.  Porphyry then questions why they would not also value the images and statues of the gods that are created by human hand, and also view them as holy items used in worship instead of a form of blasphemy.  Porphyry states “the impious person is not the one who does not treat the statues of the gods with honor, but the one who adopts the opinions of the many concerning God” (Cook 237).

Why are deities limited, and not capable of all things?

Polytheism in general has a diverse set of beliefs that can be affiliated with them, and this includes the stance of the powers and capabilities of the deities.  Finitism is the belief held by some polytheists that gods are not all knowing and have limits to their powers (Greer).  However, justifying why those beliefs are held isn’t always an easy task. 

Pliny the Elder was a Roman philosopher from the first century.  He believed that there are some things that even God is not capable of doing.  His justification for this is his belief that God could not commit suicide.  He states “he cannot procure death for himself, even if he wished it” (Pliny the Elder).  Pliny also explains that he could God could also not make mortals immortal, or bring people back from the dead.  Finally, he says that he can not make “twice ten not be twenty” (Pliny the Elder), which indicates that God can not change the laws of science and the universe as we know it.  All of these arguments are indications of why deities are limited in their powers.

Arius Didymus was a first century BC philosopher from Alexandria.  He took a slightly different approach to the limitations of the Gods than what we saw from Pliny.  Didymus believed that it was not possible for God to become something other than God, which was an interesting concept that I had never even considered.  If God were capable of becoming something else, there is the chance that they would cease to exist all-together. Didymus also believed that God did not have the capability of lying, either to himself or to others, which is a severe but important limitation in power.  Those people who say that through God all things are possible are also indicating that lying is a possibility, which is inherently bad if you believe in an all-knowing, all-powerful deity (Cook 144).  Didymus’s approach was definitely thought provoking, but excellent justifications for why deities are limited in their capabilities.

How did the world come into being?

The creation of the universe is one of the areas of religion that has been debated and argued about for as long as humans have existed, and even today we still don’t have a consensus from everyone on how the world came to be.  Ancient philosophers, of course, each had their very own opinions. 

Celsus believed that the Hebrew scriptures that were used to explain the Christian creation story were based purely on mythology.  He did not believe that these scriptures were even worthy of exploring or deeper interpretations, and he found no value in them.  He viewed the mythical nature of these scriptures to be “stupid” and said they held no indication for Jesus or his fulfilled prophecies (Cook 70).  Celsus clearly had very strong opinions on this subject as he further explains that Jews and Christians aren’t ashamed of the Old Testament writings, so they try to find allegories or interpretations in them to truly explain the world, and he thinks that approach is inappropriate (Cook 71).

            Porphyry seemed to have a similar view to Celsus, also viewing the Jewish scriptures as writings that are filled with “wickedness” and “foreign myths” (Cook 129).  However, Porphyry seems to be more offended by the way the scriptures were interpreted than by the myths themselves.  He says that when allegory is applied to these scriptures, which are pretty clear in their meanings, it creates unnecessary complications and mysteries, which make the meaning of them much more difficult.  By making the myths themselves more complicated to understand, you’re hiding the knowledge contained within them, which Porphyry seemed to find unnecessary and more harmful than useful. 

How are miracles and/or prophecy performed by holy persons or priests?

            Miracles are defined as “a surprising and welcome event that is not explicable by natural or scientific laws and is therefore considered to be the work of a divine agency” (Merriam-Webster).  These events are difficult to explain without some sort of divine intervention being included.  Greer expresses the idea that miracles can be used to support polytheism in general (Greer).  However, how these miracles are performed is consistently up for debate. 

            Celsus wrote a lot about Jesus and the miracles and prophecy surrounding him.  He believed that the prophecies concerning Jesus could be interpreted for “millions” of different people more fitting than Jesus (Cook 73) Celsus was someone who took prophecy very seriously, but he also felt that the ancient Greek methods of prophecy were better than those being practiced by the Christians. He went so far as to call those practices “fraudulent” (Cook 79) especially considering the way Christians disregarded many of the wider known oracles of his time.  When it came to explaining Jesus’s miracles, Celsus looked to magic and described Jesus as an “adept of Egyptian magic” (Cook 36) which gave him the abilities needed for his many miracles. Ultimately, Celsus seems to indicate that the miracles were performed, but they weren’t some mystical ability.  Instead, he believed that the miracles of Jesus were completed through known working magical practices.

            Porphyry took a different approach to miracles.  Prophyry tried to discredit the miracles of Jesus altogether.  For example, when explaining the miracle of walking on water, Porphyry tried to downplay them, saying that it was a “miracle for the ignorant” explaining that the witnesses couldn’t tell the difference between a lake and a sea, so they weren’t knowledgeable enough to actually know a true miracle (Magny).   He went on to point out the “lack of faith” he saw in the disciples since they couldn’t perform the miracles that Jesus asked them to perform.  Additionally, Porphyry believed that Jesus had been tricked by “daimones” into believing that he had performed the miracles as well (Magny).   Unlike Celsus, Porphyry seems to believe that the miracles did not actually occur as they were reported.  He seems to indicate that the claims were inaccurate at best.

4.   Provide an Indo-European cosmogony (from lore or reliably reconstructed from lore by scholarly sources). Explain how this cosmogony shaped mythology and thought that derives from it by providing examples from existing sources, as well as how it conflicts with any other known cosmogony from this culture. (Minimum 500 words)

As I explained previously, cosmogony is a study of the creation of the universe and where the cosmos started. The ancient Greek religion of Orphism was based upon their cosmogony, which indicated that the universe started as chaos, and from that chaos all life was born.  This philosophy is clearly explored in their creation mythology:

In the beginning, there was only Chaos with no shape or structure.  From Chaos, Nyx, the goddess of night, and Erebos, the god of darkness, were born.  In the darkness, Nyx laid an egg.  She cared for this egg, and nurturing it and waiting for her offspring to hatch. Eventually, the egg began to break, and from it Eros, the god of love, was born. It was Eros who brought light to the world. 

The two halves of the egg did not go to waste either.  The first half fell far below, becoming the body of the earth, Gaia.  The second half stayed high above and became the sky, Ouranus.  Despite their distance, Eros helped Gaia and Ouranus fall in love, and from this coupling, the Titans were born (Kerenyi 17).  These children were named Kronos, Coios, Krios, Iapetos, Hyperion, Okeanos, Theia, Rhea, Themis, Mnemosyne, Phoebe, and Thethys.  Gaia loved her children, but Ouranos hated them.  After each child was born, Ouranos would steal them from Gaia and hide them away in the earth.  Gaia was greatly displeased, so she conspired with her children to seek revenge.  At the request of his mother, Kronos, ambushed Ouranos and castrated him.  The blood from Ouranos’s wounds poured into Gaia, and from it Erinyes and the Nymphais were born.  The genitals were cast into the sea, and from them grew Aphrodite. (Hesiod). 

Kronos married his sister Rhea, and became the ruler of the Titans.  However, Kronos feared that one of his children would overthrow him just as he had done to his father.  When Rhea would birth a child, Kronos would swallow them whole, ensuring that he knew where his children were and that they wouldn’t be able to overthrow him.  However, just like her mother, Rhea began to plot against her husband.  When she gave birth to Zeus, she hid him away on the isle of Crete.  Rhea then wrapped a stone in a cloth, and tricked Kronos into believing it was their newly born child, so he consumed that instead.  When Zeus returned, he freed his siblings and killed his father, taking over as ruler of the deities (Kerenyi 23).

The myth continues to build from there, exploring the war between the Titans and the Gods, the creation of humans, and other important stories but I believe this point in the myth that the cosmogony ends.  Some people may end it earlier, but the birth of the Titans, who make up time,  oceans, memory, etc. seems like an important story to include.

This cosmogony heavily effects Hellenic mythology, defining the relationships between the deities, their roles in the universe, and so much more.  There is no other culture that I am familiar with that bases so much of their mythology upon their cosmogony.  Overall, I don’t believe there is any serious conflict between the cosmogony I’ve shared here, and any others that may be found in the Hellenic culture.  There are variances, such as changing who hatched from the egg, and who was birthed from who, but in general the creation myth is fairly well defined and fairly consistent across the different mythologists and philosophers.

5.   Describe the relationship of humans to each of the Three Kindreds, and to the Outdwellers, providing examples from lore. (Minimum 150 words per Kindred)

Shining Ones

     The relationships that humans have with the Shining Ones is complicated and vastly diversified not only from deity to deity, but from interaction to interaction.  One example would be the relationships humans had with Prometheus and Zeus.  Prometheus is the deity that is said to have created humankind.  He cared for the humans that he created, so he tricked Zeus into accepting the bones and fat for offerings and leaving the meat to humans (Hesiod).   However, on numerous other occasions we see myths where Zeus became completely enamored with humans and pursued them, sometimes even when they didn’t want the attention.  There are also numerous myths of deities aiding mortal heroes on their quests, such as the role Athena plays as a guide and mentor to Odysseus throughout Homer’s Odyssey. 

     Other lore shows instances where humans were harshly judged and punished by deities. One example would be Actaeon, a hero from Theban.  While he was hunting, he came across the goddess Artemis while she was bathing. Artemis was so angry that he had seen him nude that she turned him into a deer and allowed his hunting dogs to tear him apart (Ovid). 

There are other, more complicated relationships as well.  For example, in the Homeric Hymn to Demeter, we learn the story of Demophon, a baby that is being looked after by Demeter.  Demeter began the process to make Demophon an immortal, which included placing the baby in a fire each night.  When Demophon’s mother saw Demeter with her child, she panicked, thinking that Demeter was trying to hurt the baby.  Demeter was so offended that she demanded that he family build a temple to her as a peace offering.  However, once that temple was completed, she initiated them into her Mysteries (Wright). 

All of these variations show just how complicated our relationships with the Shining Ones can be.  They are powerful, incredible beings with the ability to aid us if given the proper respect and approached in the appropriate way.  However, just because they are able to aid us doesn’t mean we should take that for granted, or forget about their potential for vengeance.  The relationship should be approached with hospitality, respect, and gratitude. 

Nature Spirits

The ancient world had a very strong connection to the nature spirits, understood the importance in a way that most modern humans can only imagine.  They understood that there are natural spirits around us.  Nature spirits were a huge part of Greek mythology.  The Hellenic culture held a very animistic view of the world.  Plants and animals had relationships with the deities, and there was an abundance of nature spirits present in their mythology to represent the different aspects of the natural world.  There were “innumerable nymphs, dryads, fauns, satyrs who were supposed to dwell in wells in streams” which express the universal animistic view among their culture (Karsten 46).  Slavic mythology had a similar practice of including multiple nature spirits in their mythology.  They had sea spirits, including Vila and Vodyanye, and land spirits called Leshii, which were the protectors of plants and animals (Phillips 66-72).  

The relationship that modern humans have with nature spirits is quite different than the relationship that we see in the lore.  The myths shows us that ancient humans held a respect and appreciation for nature spirits that I believe is often lacking in modern society.  People may acknowledge the role that nature spirits play in our sustenance, but the respect for the creatures themselves is often ignored or forgotten.  We have nature spirits as pets.  We utilize them to beautify our lawns and homes. We consume them to fuel our bodies.  However, I think there is often a disconnect between us and the spirits of those beings.  ADF plays an important role in that for me, reminding me of the very real spirits that exist in these places that may be otherwise overlooked.  I find that so important in my own life.

Ancestors

     The relationships that humans have with ancestors is unique, because these are beings who used to also be human.  Ancient cultures did not view death as a taboo subject, unlike many modern societies.  The Hittite culture had temples to honor the royal ancestors, and believed that an “active ancestor cult” was required to obtain a happy afterlife.  They honored ancestors going back centuries, reading their names in the royal tombs to remember those who had passed before them (Collins 194). 

   Ancient Greek mythology has frequent references to the underworld, and their heroes often made journeys to the underworld.  These interactions show that the ancestors are accessible and able to communicate with the living.  For example, in the Odyssey, Odysseus travels to the land of the dead to speak with the ancient seer Tiersias.  He made offerings to the seer, and asked for his guidance upon his journey home (Homer). 

    These references show how important the ancestors were to these ancient cultures.  Not only did they take the time to remember the ancestors, they made offerings to them and were able to communicate with them to ask for guidance.  I think this is very fitting of the human relationship with the ancestors in our practices.  We are fond of saying “that which remembers, lives”, so we make offerings, we speak of our ancestors, and we believe that they live on, at least in spirit. 

Outdwellers

            Many ancient cultures had some version of “Outsider” that can be found in the mythology.  Celtic mythology refers to the Formorians, while Greek mythology focuses on the Titans.  Vedic mythology views the Asuras as outsiders in their culture.  In the Rigveda, the Asuras were described as primordial deities.  After being beaten by the Devas, the Asuras were forced out of the world and into another realm (Kuiper). However, even though they were separated from the mortal realm, that did not stop them from causing issues for the Devas and humans alike.  For example, the Asuras were believed to consume sacrifices if they were not done in the appropriate ritual (Mackenzie).  These explanations of the Asura give us some guidance as to how the Outdwellers should be interacted with. They are outside of the realm of the Devas, and shouldn’t be treated the same as those deities.  However, they still crave offerings and sacrifices, so giving them gifts may help appease them and make them less likely to interfere with your workings.  Otherwise, they may sit and wait for a misstep and take advantage of that situation.

6.   By what mechanism does an ADF Priest call upon the divine in ritual? Is this different than the mechanism used by any other ADF Member (i.e. non-priests) or other Pagans at large? Provide at least two examples from the lore or philosophy that support the mechanism described, as well as any differences in the way clergy and lay members deal with the divine. (Minimum 400 words)

            The phrase “call upon the divine in ritual” is a one that I don’t know I have ever used as an ADF priest.  I’ll admit that I spent probably too much time researching what the term “divine” meant and trying to decide how to interpret it as an ADF priest.  The word divine is defined as “relating to or proceeding directly from god” or “being a deity” (Merriam-Webster).  This definition feels like it is aimed at a monotheistic religion, so I am going to adapt it a little bit and say that calling upon the divine is calling on the energies of the universe.  So how does an ADF Priest call upon the energies of the universe within ritual?  Essentially, we call upon the divine by inviting them to our rituals.  In the Core Order of Ritual, we invite the Earth Mother, Gatekeeper, Three Kindred, and Beings of Occasion to join us in our ritual.  We make offerings to them, we show them they are welcome, and we thank them for their aid in our workings.  This relationship is one built upon hospitality.  

            Ancient Greece had a concept called “xenia” which described the reciprocal relationship between guest and host, or a “guest-friendship,” and the importance of hospitality (Biggs, Joseph and Bennet).  It's very similar to the term *ghosti that we utilize regularly within ADF.  This type of call to the divine was regularly seen in the interactions between ancient Greek mortals and deities, and in those interactions.  In the Odyssey, we see this expectation of reciprocity described when Odysseus approaches Eumaeus, the swineherd. Eumaeus welcomes Odysseus, even though he doesn’t recognize him, saying that it would be wrong to turn a guest away and that every stranger is sent from Zeus and a gift is expected.  Odysseus shows his gratitude by calling upon Zeus directly “May Zeus and the other gods give you your heart’s desire, sir, since you welcome me so warmly” (Homer). 

            The importance of the guest-host relationship, and the divine can also be found in the Eleusinian Mysteries.  The Pheneatian sanctuary to Demeter is where the Mysteries first began.  The myth tied to this temple indicated that Demeter had visited the temple, and was shown hospitality by Trisaules and Damithales.  In return for that hospitality, she showed them the wisdom of the mysteries and how to grow many crops.  They built the temple in her honor and to share those Mysteries with others.  By building a relationship on xenia, Trisaules and Damithales were able to call upon the divine and receive blessings in the form of much wisdom.

            We can also call upon the divine through our prayers.  These prayers can take many different forms, allowing us to speak to the universe through words, gestures, movement, song, dance, and posture (Serith 17-27).  Prayer is found regularly throughout Greek lore.  In Aesop’s fables, we see the myth of Hercules and the Wagoner.  The wagoner was driving a heavy cart and it got stuck in the mud.  He prayed to Hercules, asking for his aid.  Hercules appeared to the wagoner and said he would help, but only if the wagoner also pushed beside him.  The wagoner prayed for Hercules aid, and aid was given (Aesop). 

            In the Illiad, we see several examples of prayer used to call upon the divine.  In one scene, Odysseus finds himself in trouble, and calls out to Athena for aid. He prays “Hear me, daughter of aegis bearing Zeus, you who spy out all my ways and who are with me in all my hardships, befriend me in this mine hour”.  Athena heard his prayer, and put courage into their hearts to aid them with the battle at hand (Homer, The Illiad). 

            I don’t believe that the methods that ADF priests use to call upon the divine are any different than those that are utilized by other ADF members or Pagans.  Prayer and hospitality are essential parts of many practices, and are not exclusive to clergy.  Rev. Ian Corrigan states that we are able to perceive and call upon the divine because they exist within us.  Humans have the divine powers of creation, destruction, vision, and shaping inside of us (Corrigan).  This is not something granted upon us because we’ve gained the title of Priest.  He also states that divinity is a part of nature and not something that is supernatural (Corrigan), so all humans have the ability to call upon those powers.

7.   Explain whether the sacrifice/blessing relationship is one of obligation or one of volunteerism: in other words, does the mechanism of sacrifice and blessing have a required or optional outcome for both parties involved? What are the implications of your position on this topic on our ritual work? (Minimum 300 words)

            From my perspective, the sacrifice/blessing relationship is one of volunteerism that is built upon the idea of hospitality.  It’s quite probable that there will be no moment in our lives where we are required to make offerings.  We choose to do so in order to foster a positive relationship with the universe and the divine powers that exist in it.  However, I also understand that most of us could have taken a path through life that did not require that to happen.  We chose this path.  Sometimes we felt guided or led here, but ultimately it was our choice to make the offerings and call upon the beings to receive them and grant us their blessings in return.  I’ve heard other ADF Priests argue that, as clergy, it is our obligation to make these offerings.  In my opinion, becoming an ADF priest is something that we have done voluntarily, and maintaining our oath and donning the stole was not something that was ‘required’ of us. 

            I also don’t believe there is a required outcome from a sacrifice being made.  Just because you made an offering does not immediately suggest that you will receive a blessing in return, just as we would see in mundane interactions.  For example, if you walk up to a stranger and hand them a gift, there is no realistic expectation that they will give you a gift in return.  They may say thank you, but then they’d walk away, probably confused, and go about their day.  The same occurs with offerings and blessings.  Over time, relationship is built and acknowledged, you can learn more what to expect, and see more results from those gifts and blessings.  I don’t see this hospitality as something we are obligated to complete, but it is something that I do both gratefully and voluntarily. 

8.   Explain how natural disasters (such as earthquakes, disease, and eruptions) are viewed in polytheistic cultures, including their causes (Minimum 300 words)

            Ancient polytheistic cultures often turned to their spirituality to describe events or phenomenon in the universe that they did not understand, including natural disasters.  They would share myths and lore that attributed these terrifying incidents to actions of powerful deities or spirits.  Personally, I believe that this personification of the events gave them a way to not only explain the event that was occurring, but also gave them a way to try to prevent them from happening.  Volcanic eruptions, diseases, and droughts could all be explained through different lore across many different cultures. 

            For example, in Linear B, Poseidon is given the epithet of Enosichthon, or Earth-Shaker.  It is in this role that he was attributed with being the cause of earthquakes and floods.  These events would occur when Poseidon was angered due to not being respected appropriately, such as in the Odyssey.  Poseidon was angered by Odysseus, so he causes storms, earthquakes, and many other challenges throughout the myth (Homer, The Odyssey).  In another myth, Vulcan was the Roman god of fire and the forge.  The word “volcanoes” descends directly from his name.  It was believed that Vulcan’s forge was hidden deep inside the mountains, and that the smoke and fire from the volcano were caused by his work.  Each year the city of Rome would hold an annual festival called Vulcanalia to try to appease Vulcan and prevent eruptions (Wigington).  There are many other examples, such as the Homeric Hymn to Demeter, Persephone is stolen away from her mother and taken to the underworld.  Demeter is so distraught that she stops performing all of her duties to search for her daughter, and the world is overtaken by a drought (Homer, Hymn to Demeter).  Ancient Greece also had type of spirits known as the Nosoi, which were the embodiment of plague, sickness, and disease.  They escaped from Pandroa’s box and continue to bring mischief the world for her actions (Hesiod, Works and Days).   

Works Cited

Aesop. Hercules & the Wagoner. n.d. 2019. <http://www.read.gov/aesop/038.html>.

Biggs, Cory, et al. The Value of Hospitality. 2002. 2019. <https://minerva.union.edu/wareht/gkcultur/guide/8/web1.html>.

Collins, Billie Jean. The Hittites and Their World. Socieity of Biblical Literature, 2007.

Cook, John Granger. The Interpretation of the New Testament in Greco-Roman Paganism. Hendrickson Publishers, 2002.

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