1.  Indo-European Culture: Discuss in general terms the bardic arts prevalent within a single (preferably ancient) Indo-European culture; explain how those bardic arts fit into that culture and religion. (300-600 words)

            The bardic arts play an important role in our knowledge of the ancient Greek culture.  Through poetry, stories, and art we have learned about their practices, religion, and society.  One work that gives us a glimpse into the history of Greece is the Odyssey, which is an epic poem written between 700 and 800 BC, attributed to a poet named Homer (Theoi.com).   This poem explores the journey of Telemachus while he tries to find his father, Odysseus, and bring him home. It is captivating story with successes and failures, intervention from the deities, revenge, giants, monsters, chases, escapes, and even some true love.  By looking deeper into the writing in the Odyssey we can see recurring themes that tell us about ancient Greek life. 

One frequent theme throughout the Odyssey is the idea of hospitality. In the story of the defeat of Polyphemos, the Cyclops, we see an example of what happens when the rules of hospitality were not followed.  Odysseus and his men enter the cave of Polyphemos, bearing gifts, and wait for him to return home.  He returns to his cave and finds the men waiting and Odysseus says, “We have found you, and come to your knees to pray if you will give us the stranger’s due or anything you may think proper to give a stranger.  Respect the gods, noble sir; see, we are your suppliants” (Homer 105).  However, instead of treating them as guests, he eats several of the men.  In order to escape, the men blind the Cyclops.  

Additionally, within the Odyssey we can begin to understand the ancient Greek views on their relationship with the Gods.  Throughout this poem we see the gods aid or punish the humans, depending on the actions of the people themselves.  Athena repeatedly comes to the aid of Telemachus, while Poseidon repeatedly punishes Odysseus for role in the Trojan War, and for harming his son, Polyphemus (Homer 105).  There are also several different sections of the poem where sacrifices are made to the Gods to ask for favor, such as the sacrifice to Poseidon made at Pylos (Homer 27).  Each of these stories gives us a glimpse into the reciprocal relationship that the Greeks believed to have with the deities.  They gave gifts and lived pious lives in order to build positive relationships with the world around them.  This short story gives us a lot of insight into the expectations of people in Greek society, as do many other bardic works. 

The ancient Greeks were the inventors of epic and lyric poetry, and played a large role in the invention of drama (Mastin).   Additionally, if we look at the mythology of the Nine Muses we can see evidence of several other types of bardic arts. The muses were the daughters of Zeus and Mnemosyne and presided over the arts, each with their own specialty:  Calliope was the muse of epic poetry, while Clio covered history, Euterpe specialized in lyric poetry, Melpomene mastered tragedy, Terpsichore oversaw choral singing and dance, Erato focused on love poetry, Polyhymnia presided over sacred poetry, Urania was dedicated to astronomy, and Thalia covered comedy (World Almanac Education Group, Inc.).  Each Muse was said to bring inspiration to those they worked with, while also giving knowledge and remembering all the things that have come to pass (Theoi.com).  The description of the muses shows us just how diverse the bardic arts were within ancient Greek culture.  It is through these arts that mythology, customs, and traditions were passed between groups and from generation to generation. 

2.  Genres: Describe four "genres" of bardic arts, at least one of which must be poetry. For each genre, compare and contrast its appearance and/or use in two single (preferably ancient) Indo-European cultures. The two cultures need not be the same for all four genres. (300 words each)

Poetry

            Poetry is defined as “writing that formulates a concentrated imaginative awareness of experience in language chosen and arranged to create a specific emotional response through meaning, sound, and rhythm” (Merriam-Webster).  This is one genre of the bardic arts that is found in many different ancient Indo-European societies, including both Norse and Greek cultures.

Norse

The Poetic Eddas are an important source for the knowledge we currently have about ancient Norse religious beliefs.  The Eddas were originally shared orally, and were finally written down between 1000 and 1300 BC (Hare).  It is a collection of over thirty poems and short stories that tell the tales of the gods and heroes of Norse culture.  These poems are grouped into four line stanzas and frequently contain alliteration (Hollander XXV).  Included throughout these poems are descriptions of the morals, ethics, and codes of conduct within ancient Norse society.  One example of this is in stanza 115 of the poem Hovamol where we see a caution against adultery:

I rede thee, Loddfafnir! | and hear thou my rede,--

Profit thou hast if thou hearest,

Great thy gain if thou learnest:

Seek never to win | the wife of another,

Or long for her secret love  (Bellows).

Greek

            Ancient Greek society had numerous poets who wrote a wide variety of poetry, ranging from epigrams to hymns to deities and epic poems.  However, Homer is probably the most well known Greek poet in modern society.  Homer wrote the Iliad and the Odyssey, which were incredibly long poems. These poems were written in dactylic hexameter, which is “a line of verse consisting of six metrical feet” (Merriam-Webster).  These poems also told the tales of heroes, as well as the standard practices and expectations of ancient Greek culture, including hospitality, and sacrifices to different deities.  

Compare/Contrast

            After reviewing poetry in these two cultures, I was surprised to see some strong similarities.  While the tales included in the poetry were quite different, the purpose and use of them was very much the same.  Through the poetry of both the ancient Norse and Greek cultures we are able to explore the morals and expectations of people within their societies.  These poems use mythology and heroes to explain roles and rules in society and the importance of following them, and often the consequences if you do not.  Additionally, both the Greek and Norse poems were originally passed around orally between groups and generations before eventually being written down. 

            However, there are some drastic differences in the form of the poetry itself. The Eddas were written in shorter poems that were made up of four stanzas with strong alliteration, while Homer’s poems were written as long epics several thousand lines long with hexameter and rare alliteration. 

Prose

            Prose is defined as “a literary medium distinguished from poetry especially by its greater irregularity and variety of rhythm and its closer correspondence to the patterns of everyday speech” (Merriam-Webster).  Essentially, this means that prose is any writing that is done without an intentional rhyme scheme or format that would traditionally be found in poetry.  With a definition that generic, it is easy to believe that there are examples of prose in nearly every ancient Indo-European culture that had a form of writing.  I will be discussing prose in the Norse and Vedic cultures. 

Norse

            While poetry plays an important role in our knowledge of ancient Norse culture, prose was also used to disseminate information and tell stories.  The Prose Edda is an Old Norse text that was written around 1200 by Snorri Sturlson (Hare, The Prose Edda).  This work includes numerous myths and tales from this ancient culture, including the creation of the world, Thor’s adventures, and Ragnarok.   This work acts as a textbook for apprentice poets, which gave the mythological and legendary background, along with rules of composition (Brodeur XVI-XVII). 

Vedic

            Within the Vedic culture, we see another example of prose writing in the Satapatha Brahmana.  The Brahmana is a sacred text that describes Vedic rituals, philosophy, and mythology.  It was written into a text around 300 BCE after being passed from group to group for an unknown amount of time (Hare, The Satapatha Brahmana).  Similar to the Prose Eddas, you can find a creation story in this text.  Additionally, there are tales of the earth mother and other deities, and myths such the flood of Manu.

Compare/Contrast

            Both the Prose Eddas and the Satapatha Brahmana appear to be written as textbooks to pass information on the mythology, philosophy, and social norms of their culture.  Both of these works of prose are also broken into separate books or chapters, each with its own tale or purpose.  However, while the Prose Eddas describe their religion only through the tales and mythology, the Satapatha Brahmana gives detailed descriptions of the religious practices of the culture, specifically describing new and full moon sacrifices, altar setups, and the construction of ceremonial space used in specific rituals.

Drama

            Drama is defined very simply as “a piece of writing that tells a story and is performed on a stage” (Merriam-Webster).  Drama is something that I have typically thought of as a bardic art from the Medieval or Renaissance time periods.  However, drama has existed for much longer than this.  In fact, ancient Indian and Greek cultures present us with examples of early plays and dramas from over 1000 years before William Shakespeare was born. 

Greek

            Theater played an important role in Greek festivals.  They were used as a form of both ritual and entertainment for the people, often acting out the myths that the festival was dedicated to.  Tragedies were some of the earliest dramas ever written, dating as far back as 500 BC.  Three of the most well-known playwrights from ancient Greece are Sophocles, Euripides, and Aeschylus (Robinson).  Sophocles wrote numerous dramas, including Oedipus Rex, which initially used only three actors and 15 members of the chorus to tell the tale.  These limitations made the dramas very stripped down and personal.  Additionally, most Greek tragedies were based on either mythology or historical events, often exploring their psychological motivations and search for the meaning of life (Robinson). 

Vedic

            Theater also had an early start in ancient India with the oldest fragments of Sanskrit plays date to the first century AD (Richmond, Zarrilli and Swann 27).  There are several different plays and dramas, but some of the most popular are the romantic dramas written by Kalidasa.  Kalidasa was a Sanskrit poet and dramatist that lived between the 4^th and 5^th century AD. There are three plays that are attributed to Kalidasa:  Malavikka and Agnimitra, Urvashii Won Through Valor, and Shakuntalaa Recognized (Malaiya).  Each of these plays is several acts long and includes a hero and heroine, along with the entertaining tale.  There is little social commentary, and these plays seem to be aimed at entertainment over education. 

Compare/Contrast

            Dramas played an important role in both ancient Greek and Vedic societies, providing entertainment during festivals and other important events.  Dramas within both of these cultures were broken into several acts and often included both heroes and heroines.  However, many of the Greek dramas focused on mythology and historical events, while several of the Vedic plays were more relaxed romantic dramas with little social or historical commentary.   There are exceptions on both sides of that though, with some Greek dramas with little historical narratives, and Vedic plays, such as Mahabhaṣya, which was a commentary on Sanskrit grammar rules (Meyer, Burn and Cotton). 

Music

            Music is defined as “the science or art of ordering tones or sounds in succession, in combination, and in temporal relationships to produce a composition having unity and continuity” (Merriam-Webster).  However, a definition like this cannot adequately describe music.  Music holds a spirituality all its own that can evoke change and growth.  It is through music that we can give praise, celebrate, or even mourn.  This was true even in ancient Indo-European societies. 

Greek

            In ancient Greece, music was an important part of the bardic arts.  They used music in several different ways, including music for the Gods through hymns, music in theater for entertainment, and music for the people themselves to sing and enjoy. One type of music in the latter category was called “skolion.” This term was used to describe different types of songs that were performed of symposia, including singing guests and accompaniment on a lyre (Mathiesen 142).  A single person sang these songs with no concept of harmony.  Ancient Greece also had a type of music called “threnody.”  These songs were used for lamentation, and were intended to “praise the deceased and provide a release for intense emotions of the bereaved” (Mathiesen 132).  These are only two of the many different types of music that were present in ancient Greece, but I believe they show just how diversely music was utilized throughout their culture.

Roman

            Unlike the Greek culture, music was not thought to be an essential part of education in the Roman Republic (Kelsey Museum of Archaeology).  However, this does not mean that the Romans discarded the use of music completely.  In fact, music held great importance in religious practices of the Roman society.  Musicians, such as flute or lyre players were often part of religious processions and sacrifices.  (Rupke 249).  These musicians had specific duties assigned to them, so some played specifically at military events, while others played at funeral rituals.  They were organized into “collegia” similar to priesthood.  These “collegia cult musicians” also generally had a high reputation in society (Rupke 252). 

Compare/Contrast

            While the ancient Greek and Roman cultures are very similar in many ways, their approaches to music are blatantly different.  Greeks seemed to have utilized music as a part of every day life, using it for entertainment as well as ritual.  Romans instead seemed to focus their music more as a tool for ritual.  However, both cultures did believe that music was an important part of ritual practices. 

3.  Forms/styles: Describe four forms or styles of bardic arts in either ancient or modern times or a combination of each. Include examples of each form. At least one such description should be for a poetic form; the remainder can be for any bardic form or style. (100 words each [examples not to be included in word count])

Lyric Poetry

             A lyric poem is defined as “a short poem with one speaker who expresses thought and feeling” (Melani).  These poems are often quite short and direct, and focus on personal feelings instead of historical or mythological events.  Originally, lyric poems were written with the intention of being accompanied by a lyre. They first became popular in ancient Greece during the 7^th century BC (Damen).   There are several sub-genres within lyrical poetry as well including odes, which dealt with serious subjects, and elegies, which were intended to be accompanied by a flute instead of a lyre.  One of the most well known lyrical poets from ancient Greece is a woman named Sappho.  She lived in the 6^th century BC on the island of Lesbos.  Numerous fragments of her work have been found, along with a single completed poem titled “Hymn to Aphrodite.”  

Hymn to Aphrodite by Sappho

Shimmering-throned immortal Aphrodite,

Daughter of Zeus, Enchantress, I implore thee,

Spare me, O queen, this agony and anguish,

Crush not my spirit

Whenever before thou has hearkened to me--

To my voice calling to thee in the distance,

And heeding, thou hast come, leaving thy father's

Golden dominions,

With chariot yoked to thy fleet-winged coursers,

Fluttering swift pinions over earth's darkness,

And bringing thee through the infinite, gliding

Downwards from heaven,

Then, soon they arrived and thou, blessed goddess,

With divine countenance smiling, didst ask me

What new woe had befallen me now and why,

Thus I had called thee.

What in my mad heart was my greatest desire,

Who was it now that must feel my allurements,

Who was the fair one that must be persuaded,

Who wronged thee Sappho?

For if now she flees, quickly she shall follow

And if she spurns gifts, soon shall she offer them

Yea, if she knows not love, soon shall she feel it

Even reluctant

.

Come then, I pray, grant me surcease from sorrow,

Drive away care, I beseech thee, O goddess

Fulfil for me what I yearn to accomplish,

Be thou my ally. (Sappho)

Epic Poetry

            Epic poems are longer, narrative poems intended to tell a story.  They were the preferred method of poetry writing in early ancient Greece, prior to the adoption of lyrical poetry.  Epic poems were traditionally written in dactylic hexameter, which means that each line was made up of six metrical feet (Mastin).  This form was intended to make the poems easier to remember and present orally.  These poems often focus on heroic deeds or events in mythology.   The most popular epic poet in ancient Greece was Homer.  Homer’s poems were written versions of stories that had been told and retold orally for many years.   They included many similes and epithets to help the poem flow.

A Section of the Odyssey by Homer

Now from his breast into the eyes the ache

of longing mounted, and he wept at last,

his dear wife, clear and faithful, in his arms,

longed for as the sunwarmed earth is longed for by a swimmer

spent in rough water where his ship went down

under Poseidon's blows, gale winds and tons of sea.

Few men can keep alive through a big serf

to crawl, clotted with brine, on kindly beaches

in joy, in joy, knowing the abyss behind:

and so she too rejoiced, her gaze upon her husband,

her white arms round him pressed as though forever. (Homer)

Bucolic/Pastoral Poetry

            Bucolic poetry is another popular style of poetry found in ancient Greek writing.  Bucolic poetry is focuses on pastoral traditions and the idealization of rural life and landscapes. For this reason, it is often referred to as “pastoral poetry” (Acadamey of American Poets).  The poems themselves vary greatly in length and form, while instead the theme remains consistent.  The pastoral poetry style started with Hesiod’s most famous poem “Works and Days” which acts as a farmer’s almanac (Acadamey of American Poets).  Theocritus was a Greek bucolic poet who lived in the third century BC (Atsma).  Much of his writing focused on pastoral life, and often romanticized the life of herdsmen and farmers in ancient Greece. 

Section of Idylls 1 by Theocritus

THYRSIS

[1] Something sweet is the whisper of the pine that makes her music by yonder springs, and sweet no less, master Goatherd, the melody of your pipe. Pan only shall take place and prize afore you; and if they give him a horny he-goat, then a she shall be yours; and if a she be for him, why, you shall have her kid; and kid’s meat’s good eating till your kids be milch-goatds.

GOATHERD

[7] As sweetly, good Shepherd, falls your music as the resounding water that gushes down from the top o’ yonder rock. If the Muses get the ewe-lamb to their meed, you shall carry off the cosset,1 the ewe-lamb come to you.

THYRSIS

[12] ‘Fore the Nymphs I pray you, master Goatherd, come now and sit ye down here by this shelving bank and these brush tamarisks and play me a tune. I’ll keep your goats the while (Theocritus).

Fables

            A fable is defined as “a short story that is usually about animals and is intended to teach a lesson” (Merriam-Webster).  Fables have been passed from generation to generation for centuries, and many of the fables that we know today have existed since the sixth century BC, or earlier.  The purpose of a fable is to be told for the sake of a moral and not simply for the entertainment of the reader (Carlson).  The most popular fables were created Aesop, a Greek storyteller who lived during the 6^th century BC.  He wrote numerous stories, including The Boy who Cried Wolf, The Ant and the Grasshopper, and The Lion and the Mouse, each including obvious cautionary morals.

The Lion and the Mouse by Aesop

Some field-mice were playing in the woods where a lion was sleeping when one of the mice accidentally ran over the lion. The lion woke up and immediately grabbed the wretched little mouse with his paw. The mouse begged for mercy, since he had not meant to do the lion any harm. The lion decided that to kill such a tiny creature would be a cause for reproach rather than glory, so he forgave the mouse and let him go. A few days later, the lion fell into a pit and was trapped. He started to roar, and when the mouse heard him, he came running. Recognizing the lion in the trap, the mouse said to him, 'I have not forgotten the kindness that you showed me!' The mouse then began to gnaw at the cords binding the lion, cutting through the strands and undoing the clever ingenuity of the hunter's art. The mouse was thus able to restore the lion to the woods, setting him free from his captivity.

Let no one dare to harm even the smallest among us (Aesop).

4.  Bardic Figure: Describe the life, fame and general techniques of a historical or mythical bardic figure in an (preferably ancient) Indo-European culture. (minimum 300 words)

            Hesiod is an admired poet from ancient Greece, who lived in the eighth century BC.  He is most well known for his writing of Theogony and Works and Days.  He is also thought to be the creator of didactic, or instructional poetry (Mastin).  Very little information is actually known about Hesiod’s life, but there have been many conjectures based upon his writings.   Based upon his writing in Works and Days, it is believed that Hesiod’s father was a wealthy merchant who settled in Boiotia (Mair).  In this poem he also writes of a disagreement with Perses, in which he says “Even as thy father and mine” which leads us to believe that Perses was his brother (Hesiod). 

There are also a few sources that write about Hesiod that give us some additional details about his life.  A Byzantine poet named John Tzetzes wrote about Hesiod.  He states that Hesiod and his brother were the children of Dios and Pykimede. Tzetzes also says that Hesiod worked as a shepherd in order to help his family.  Later, he describes Hesiod’s death.  He says that Hesiod he was killed at Oinoe in Lokris by Amphiphanes and Ganyktor, the sons of Phegeus, and cast into the sea.  Three days later, Hesiod’s body was carried ashore by dolphins between Lokris and Euboia (Mair).

Hesiod’s most complete existing works are Works and Days and Theogony.  Works and Days is a collection of poems broken into five ages: Golden, Silver, Bronze, Heroic, and Iron.  It explores Greek mythology from the rule of Cronos to the time of man.  It also discusses ethics, hard work, and the lucky days to undertake different activities.  Theogony is one of the most important sources of Greek mythology.  It describes the Greek creation myth while also discussing hundreds of deities and heroes (Hare, The Works of Hesiod).  Hesiod’s writing is largely important to our knowledge of Greek mythology.  The lessons we learned from his writing are still being taught today.

5.  Role of the Modern Bard: Describe the role of the modern-day, Neopagan bard in the context of ritual (100 words), Ar nDraiocht Fein (100 words) and the greater Neopagan community (100 words).

Modern-day

In modern-day Neopagan rituals, bards can have a variety of roles.  Traditionally, bards were the historians and lore keepers of their tribe, as well as the musicians, poets, and storytellers.  In modern rituals, each of these roles can still be utilized.  Through stories, lore, and poetry, bards can create or perform invocations for rituals.  Bards can help to bring music to the ritual.  Simple singing, playing, or drumming can be helpful in rituals to raise energy, focus intent, and build community. The bard can also bring inspiration to the group by calling upon the muses or deity of inspiration.  Additionally, the bard can bring beauty and theatrics to a ritual, which can make it more enjoyable for all who participate.

ADF

            The bard within ADF is quite similar to the bard in modern-day Neopagan rituals.  They work to create songs, chants, poetry, and lore for all ADF members, which can be utilized both in and outside of ritual. Additionally, I expect that the bards will continue to take on the roles as historians and lore keepers as ADF grows through time.  Even as a young organization, I have already started to see this role beginning to form with the creation of songs such as “Bonewits Wake” written by Emerald in memory of Isaac Bonewits, the founder of ADF (Egelhoff).  Even though this song is light-hearted and silly, it gives a glimpse into who Bonewits was and helps his memory live on. 

Greater Community

Bards within the greater Neopagan community play a role similar to those in ADF.  They create music, chants, and poetry, but instead of distributing it only to a small group of people, they provide it to the entire community and help build the religion as a whole.  By creating songs and poems that can be shared across the population, bards help to build community.   The performances of bards can help to build a positive image of Neopagans to those outside the community while also showing the beauty of our religion to those who may not understand it in other ways.  

6.  Practical Bardry: Compose or find a bardic piece suitable for ADF ritual. Describe the process you used for discovery and/or composition of the piece and how it was used effectively in a ritual context. (100 words)

Demeter Harvest Prayer of Praise

Blessed Demeter,

Daughter of Cronus and Rhea,

Goddess of grain, fruits and bread,

Like a mother, you give us the gift of life.

You who made fruit to spring from the lands

So the rich land was filled with leaves and flowers.

You who fill the barns with foods through your joy.

Bounteous Demeter,

Thank you for the blessings you have given mankind,

For teaching the art of harvest, and that all must end.

 For providing us the many foods that sustain us.

Divine, delightful, and lovely Goddess

For all these things and more,

We thank you!

Composition Process

            To write this poem, I utilized several different sources.  I began by looking back at the Hellenic Spring Equinox ritual my protogrove performed, which was dedicated to Persephone and Demeter.  This ritual was one that we did to welcome Persephone back from the underworld, and to celebrate with Demeter as her joy returns.  The prayer that I have written would have been used as a prayer after a successful harvest season, possibly before Persephone once again returns to the underworld and the world begins to grow cold once more.

            After I knew what I wanted to write about, I began looking at the mythology of Demeter to find phases and descriptions that were fitting.  I read the poems of Demeter written by Ceisiwr Serith and found his description of her at the spring, asking for her to “plant the seeds that will grow all summer until the harvest, when your full power will be known” (Serith 159) which guided me to want to honor the strength of the harvest, instead of focusing on the loss of her daughter to the underworld once again. The writings of Hesiod provided lines such as “Demeter richly crowned may love you and fill your barn with food” (Hesiod), while Plato described her as “Demeter is e didousa meter, who gives food like a mother” (Plato).  I also looked at the Homeric hymns and the way that Demeter is described in them.  After writing out the many different descriptions of the goddess, I wrote out a rough draft of my poem using that imagery.  After writing the first stanza, I realized that the poem was shaped as a half circle. I tried to make the second stanza similar in shape so the poem itself appears round, like the cycles of the year that Demeter often represents. 

Works Cited

Acadamey of American Poets. Poetic Form: Pastoral. 2015 <http://www.poets.org/poetsorg/text/poetic-form-pastoral>.

Aesop. The Lion and the Mouse. 2002. 2015 <http://mythfolklore.net/aesopica/oxford/70.htm>.

Atsma, Aaron. Theocritus, Idylls 1-4. 2011. September 2015 <http://www.theoi.com/Text/TheocritusIdylls1.html>.

Bellows, Henry Adams. The Poetic Edda. 1936. September 2015 <http://www.sacred-texts.com/neu/poe/poe04.htm>.

Brodeur, Arthur Gilchrist. The Prose Edda. 1916. <http://www.sacred-texts.com/neu/pre/pre02.htm>.

Carlson, Gregory I. "Fables Invite Perception." Bestia 5 (1993).

Damen, Mark. Chapter 5: Greek Lyric Poetry. 2004. September 2015 <http://www.usu.edu/markdamen/1320AncLit/chapters/05lyric.htm>.

Egelhoff, Diane Bronowicz. Bonewits Wake. August 2014. September 2015 <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=93M_ogpexuA>.

Hare, John Bruno. The Poetic Edda. August 2015 <http://www.sacred-texts.com/neu/poe/index.htm>.

—. The Prose Edda. 2015 <http://www.sacred-texts.com/neu/pre/>.

—. The Satapatha Brahmana. 2010. September 2015 <http://sacred-texts.com/hin/sbr/index.htm>.

—. The Works of Hesiod. 2010. September 2015 <http://www.sacred-texts.com/cla/hesiod/index.htm>.

Hesiod. Works And Days. 1914. October 2014 <http://www.sacred-texts.com/cla/hesiod/works.htm>.

Hollander, Lee. The Poetic Edda, Volume 1. Austin: Unversity of Texas Press, 2011.

Homer. The Odyssey. Trans. W.H.D. Rouse. New York: Signet Classic, 1999.

Kelsey Museum of Archaeology. Music in the Greek and Roman World. September 2015 <http://www.umich.edu/~kelseydb/Exhibits/MIRE/Introduction/GreekRoman/GreekRoman.html>.

Mair, A.W. Hesiod: The Poems and Fragments. Clarendon Press, 1908.

Malaiya, Yashwant K. Kalidasa: life and works. 16 January 1996. September 2015 <http://www.cs.colostate.edu/~malaiya/kalidas.html>.

Mastin, Luke. Ancient Greece. 2009. August 2015 <http://www.ancient-literature.com/greece.html>.

Mathiesen, Thomas J. Apollo's Lyre. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1999.

Melani, Lilia. Literary Terms. 7 August 2012. September 2015 <http://academic.brooklyn.cuny.edu/english/melani/lit_term.html>.

Merriam-Webster. Merriam-Webster Dictionary. 2015. August 2015 <http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/>.

Meyer, William Stevenson, et al. The Imperial Gazetteer of India - Sanskrit Literature. 1931. September 2015 <http://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/gazetteer/pager.html?objectid=DS405.1.I34_V02_298.gif>.

Plato. Cratylus . October 2014 <http://classics.mit.edu/Plato/cratylus.html>.

Richmond, Farley P., Phillip B. Zarrilli and Darius L. Swann. Indian Theatre: Traditions of Performance. University of Hawaii Press, 1993.

Robinson, Scott R. Theatre and Drama in Ancient Greece. 2010. 2015 <http://www.cwu.edu/~robinsos/ppages/resources/Theatre_History/Theahis_2.html>.

Rupke, Jorg. A Companion to Roman Religion. Malden: Blackwell Publishing, 2007.

Sappho. The Poems of Sappho Part 1. October 2014 <http://www.sacred-texts.com/cla/sappho/sappho0.htm>.

Serith, Ceisiwr. A Book of Pagan Prayer. San Francisco: Weiser Books, 2002.

Theocritus. Greek Bucolic Poets. Trans. J.M. Edmonds. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1912.

Theoi.com. Homer, Odyssey 1. August 2015 <http://www.theoi.com/Text/HomerOdyssey1.html>.

—. Mousai. August 2015 <http://www.theoi.com/Ouranios/Mousai.html>.

World Almanac Education Group, Inc. New World Encyclopedia. Chicago: World Book, Inc., 2014.

1.  Describe the customs of two or three Indo-European cultures regarding the land and natural resources, and compare and contrast these practices with the prevailing modern attitudes. (minimum 300 words)

Rome

In ancient Rome, there was a set of rules known as the Twelve Tables.  These tables were responsible for many of the guidelines of magic, including those pertaining to crops.  One of the laws states “'nobody shall, by spells, take away the harvest of a neighbor” (Graf 41).  However, these regulations did not punish the magical act, but instead punishes the offense against the property.  Graf states, “damage to fields and harvests can rather quickly call into question the status of the landowner and thus harm the social equilibrium.” 

Ancient Rome covered a large land area and remained focused on agriculture and trade for the economic growth.  The crops from the fields were the main exports for the country (McGill University).  In this type of society, more land meant more wealth.  One theory even went so far as to say that the problems with Rome were reflected in the land.  A corrupt society corrupted its land, the internal rot of the people was shown in the soil erosion, and the immoral politics were reflected in the deforestation (Pyne 93-94).  This theory shows us how deeply the Roman people were tied to the natural world around them, and the value they placed on it. 

Greece

Greece is a country that is surrounded on all sides except the north by water, and has numerous islands.  The easy access to the seas allowed the ancient Greeks to have a large maritime commerce and to travel and spread its influence to many parts of the Mediterranean.  The mountains of Greece also served as a natural boundary, and made large-scale farming difficult.  Instead, Greeks had to look outside of their country to find fertile soil.  However, they did have easy access to precious metals in the mountains (University of Pennsylvania). 

Despite having limited agricultural influence or land ownership, ancient Greeks had a very strong presence of nature spirits in their mythology. Not only were plants and animals viewed as having special attributes of their own which often used as omens, there was an entire pantheon of nature spirits, such as Dryads, Nymphs, and Satyrs that represented the different aspects of the natural world.

One aspect of ancient Greek culture that expresses their understanding of nature were the Eleusinian Mysteries.  The Mysteries were one of the most celebrated ceremonies of ancient Greece which were observed in both Athens and Eleusis.  The Eleusinian Mysteries were adopted from old agrarian cults and were based upon the tale of Persephone’s kidnapping by Hades (Nilsson).  Here is a very simplified version of the myth for reference:

Persephone was the daughter of Demeter, who was the goddess of harvest and fertility.  One day, while out picking flowers, Persephone was kidnapped by Hades and taken to the underworld to live.  Demeter searched for her daughter but couldn’t find her.  In her sadness, Demeter stopped the crops from growing and the world began to suffer.  With the help of Helios, Demeter was finally able to find Persephone, but not before Persephone had eaten several pomegranate seeds, which required her to return to Hades for several months each year. Now, each year as Persephone rises from the underworld, spring returns to the world as Demeter is overjoyed with the return of her daughter, but each fall, the world begins to again grow cold as Demeter mourns her daughter’s time in Hades. 

The Eleusinian Mysteries were divided into two separate celebrations, the Lesser Mysteries and the Greater Mysteries.  The Lesser Mysteries represented the return of Persephone to the earth while the Greater Mysteries were held honoring her return to the underworld (Wright).   These mysteries show the importance that ancient Greeks put on the cycle of the year and the turning seasons.

Compare and Contrast

In today’s society, concerns about the well being of the environment are ever-present.  We are aware of the way that our existence and lifestyle changes and affects the natural world in a way that the ancient Roman and Greeks were not able to see. There is now an emphasis on the ability to recycle or reduce the impact of humans on the planet that has never been seen in the past.  Similar to the Romans, we do have set rules that forbid people from damaging or taking the land of others, and often, at least in the case of modern farmers, the more land a person owns, the more wealthy they are thought to be.

I do feel that we could learn a few things from the ancient Greeks in terms of our relationship to nature.  While most of them were not necessarily farmers, the massive number of nature spirits in their mythology shows that they still had a very deep connection to the natural world.

2.  Describe your understanding of the term "nature spirits"? Discuss this concept in relation to both ancient Indo-European and modern ADF practices. (minimum 300 words)

Of the three Kindreds, the spirits of nature are the ones that I am most familiar and comfortable with.  I grew up in a time where summers were spent outside running through the grass and dancing in the rain, and in a place where the natural world had not yet been overtaken by modern life.  I grew up knowing that the plants and animals were important to the world around me and that they do not need voices to speak.  The spirits of nature, I believe, are the easiest to contact and honor, and to observe and appreciate.  However, all too often they are the first ones forgotten.  The feelings of connection and comfort I get when interacting or even appreciating my fellow mid-realm inhabitants is incredible. 

The ancient world understood this connection as well as the importance of the nature spirits in a way that most of modern mankind can only imagine.  They understood that there are natural spirits around us.  Nature spirits were a huge part of Greek mythology.  Ancient Greeks held a very animistic view of the world.  Plants and animals had relationships with the deities, and there was an abundance of nature spirits present in their mythology to represent the different aspects of the natural world.  There were “innumerable nymphs, dryads, fauns, satyrs who were supposed to dwell in wells in streams” which express the universal animistic view among their culture (Karsten 46).  Slavic mythology had a similar practice of including multiple nature spirits in their mythology.  They had multiple sea spirits, including Vila and Vodyanye, and land spirits called Leshii, which were the protectors of plants and animals (Phillips 66-72). 

Within ADF, nature spirits are viewed as both those natural elements that live in our realm, such as the plants and animals, and those spiritual beings of the natural world.  From an ADF perspective, nature is quite literally the giver of life.  It is the food that nourishes and the water that sustains us.  It’s the air that we breathe and the sun that warms us.  It is also the place we called home.

3.  Describe the park or patch of untended nature closest to your home and what kind of park it is. (minimum 100 words)

            The patch of untended nature closest to my home is actually a portion of our land, far into the back yard. I live in the city of Omaha, so while there are several “conservation” areas and parks, very few of them are left untended.  The area behind my house is a section of prairie that has a small creek running through it.  The creek bed is lined with trees and tall grasses and houses much more wildlife than I had anticipated in the city.  We have seen snapping turtles, raccoons, squirrels, opossums, muskrats, wild turkeys, woodpeckers, and numerous other birds, as well as the occasional deer.  It’s like a small, wild oasis on the edge of city life.

4.  Explain where your household water comes from; what waterway is nearest to your home, and where its source is; where it drains; if there are any large bodies of water (lakes, ocean) near your home; what you know about the quality of water in your region; and what the major concerns in your area regarding your water supply are. (minimum 300 words)

Water in Nebraska comes from two primary sources.  80% of the population consumes water from groundwater sources, while the remaining 20% of the population obtain water from surface water sources, such as rivers or lakes (Skipton, Dvorak and Woldt). The city of Omaha’s wastewater collection leads to two major treatment facilities, while the storm sewer system collects rainwater runoff and drains into either the Papillion Creek or Missouri River (City of Omaha Public Works Department).             In 1974, the U.S. Congress enacted The Safe Drinking Water Act to ensure that our public drinking water is safe. This program established minimum drinking water standard and regulations.  This means that all public water supply facilities have to ensure that they meet those standard.  In Nebraska, the Department of Health and Human Services is the agency responsible for enforcing drinking water regulations. Unfortunately, due to limited data regarding the health effects of chemicals in drinking water, there is no guarantee that the water contaminant level is risk-free (Skipton, Dvorak and Woldt). 

Omaha sits along the Missouri river, which is definitely the largest waterway in our area.  The Missouri river starts in Montana and runs for over 2000 miles to St. Louis, Missouri, where it drains into the Mississippi River (Geographic Names Information System).  There are also several lakes in the area, including Cunningham Lake, Beaver Lake, Carter Lake, and Lake Manawa (Nebraska Game & Parks).

The biggest concern for the waterways in Nebraska recent years has been the potential of the Keystone XL pipeline.  This pipeline would run through Nebraska and carry crude oil from Canada to Texas.  It would pose a threat to the Ogallala Aquifer, which is one of the largest aquifers in the world.  The Ogallala is incredibly important to our area as it provides water to farms across eight states (Mufson).  A single leak or spill from the Keystone XL pipeline in an area where the Aquifer is located could be disastrous to farms, ranches, and the citizens of Nebraska. 

5.  Explain where your household garbage ends up and what recycling is available in your area? (minimum 100 words)

We live right outside of the city of Omaha, Nebraska.  At our home, we use a local garbage company to gather our trash weekly.  The trash they pick up from our home goes to one of two landfills.  One is located in Douglas County, while the other is in Sarpy County.  Both of these landfills also allow personal drop offs of trash and are utilized by all the trash companies in the city.  The landfill in Douglas County is large enough to accept vehicles and other large items (Sarpy County) (Douglas County Environmental Services).    

Our garbage company also provides us with recycling opportunities.  They accept numerous types of recycling including aluminum, paper, aerosol and paint cans, cardboard, and plastic.  They do not accept glass for recycling and have a list of items on their website that aren’t accepted, including plastic bags and rubber bands. (Abe's Trash Service, Inc). 

6.  Briefly describe the major sources of air and water pollution in your area, what the biggest source of pollution in your area is, and what impact it has. (minimum 100 words)

Nebraska is an area that people don’t generally think of as having a large pollution area because the state is not densely populated and is known for farms and prairies.  However, Omaha and other parts of the state have still had to deal with air and water pollution problems.  Air pollution in Nebraska is primarily caused by the “fossil fuel combustion by industry (especially coal-fired power plants) and mobile sources, such as cars and trucks” (City of Omaha).  In Nebraska there are 1,251,616 people who live within 30 miles of a coal-fired power plant (Clean Air Task Force).  This type of pollution leads to several health issues, including lung disease, asthma, and other chronic breathing problems.

In addition to the air pollution, one study marked Nebraska's waterways as the sixth worst in the nation for toxic pollution.  During 2012, Industrial facilities dumped 10.5 million pounds of toxic chemicals into rivers and streams across Nebraska, causing high levels of nitrates to be found in the water (Laukaitis).  In 2011, Environmental Working Group began examining the quality of water across the United States.  They tested Omaha water for 148 chemicals, and of those 42 were detected.  This included “20 of which were above health guidelines, and four of those were detected in illegal amounts” (McIntyre). The pollution that is found in Nebraska’s water includes chromium, which can cause cancer, and lead, which can affect the development of children.

7.  Describe the basic climate of your region, the primary influences on your weather patterns, major economic resources of your region (for example, crops, minerals, ranching, tourism, manufacturing) and how are these affected by climate and weather conditions. (minimum 300 words)

            The climate in Nebraska is known as a “continental type climate”. This type of climate allows us to experience a large amount of variation between the seasons.  Temperatures can even vary greatly from one day to the next.  The state is not near any large bodies of water, or strong geological features, such as mountains, which is what gives us the continental climate. A continental climate typically experiences large temperature variability with warm summers with thunderstorms, and cold winters with snow and wind (Shulski, Umphlett and Pathak).  A lack of prominent geological features allows for strong winds and large cloud formations to build across the state, allowing the formation of heavy thunderstorms and tornados that the state experiences.   

            Nebraska’s economic resources are definitely led by agriculture.  With a large number of beef and pork ranches, along with corn, wheat, and soybean farms, processing is the largest industry in Nebraska (Gray).  This means that the climate in Nebraska is vitally important to the economy.  A spring and/or summer drought can lead to a low producing crop, which in turn makes the largest industry in Nebraska suffer.  A hailstorm in a large area can easily demolish all much of the profit for part of the state. 

Agriculture is not the only industry in Nebraska.  Finance and insurance has started to become much more prominent, with Berkshire Hathaway, Mutual of Omaha, and First Data all holding large offices in Omaha.   We also have the University of Nebraska Medical Center, which is a major research facility in the state, which draws patients from all over the country, as well as Offutt Air Force Base.   The last large economic resource the Nebraska has is in the industry of Transportation.  The Union Pacific Railroad provides thousands of jobs, and has shipped sources all over the country.  The largest railroad classification yard in the world is located in North Platte, Nebraska.   These industries are definitely less affected by the climate in Nebraska, but large storms can lead to power outages or hazardous travel conditions, so they can lead to challenges there.

8.  Name and provide the following information for each of three species of animals (birds, mammals, insects, fish, etc.) and three species of plants native to and currently found in your area:  

Animal – American Beaver (Castor Canadensis):

Status:  Thriving

Physical description & where/if you’ve seen it:  Beavers are a large rodent that can grow up to 4 feet long and can weigh up to 60 pounds. They have dark brown fur, webbed feet, and a large flat tail.  We have seen beavers living in the woods along the Missouri river and creating dams in the water. 

Describe how humans have used it: Beaver pelt was one of the incentives for the exploration and settlement of the western part of the United States.  Traders would trap the beavers to harvest their furs and meat (Nebraska Game & Parks). 

Animal – White-tailed Deer (Odocoileus virginianus):

Status:  Overpopulated

Physical description & where/if you’ve seen it: The white-tailed deer is a large, hooved animal with light brown fur and a large white tail.  The males have antlers with multiple points.  The fawns have white spots along the back that disappear as they grow into adults. White-tailed deer are abundantly present in the area that I live in.  I have seen them in my front yard, driving down the road, hiking in the woods, and many other places. 

Describe how humans have used it:  White-tailed deer are used in Nebraska as a food source.  The use of deer as food also has an economic impact on the state because of the numerous deer hunting permits that are sold each year (Nebraska Game & Parks). 

Animal – Black-footed Ferret (Mustela nigripes):

Status:  Endangered

Physical description & where/if you’ve seen it:  Black-footed ferrets are small mammals that are 20 to 24 inches long and weigh about 2.5 pounds.  The have long bodies and short legs with a tan fur.  However, the fur on the head, feet, and tip of the tail are black.  I have never seen a black-footed ferret in person because of their endangered status. 

Describe how humans have used it:  The black-footed ferret never had a strong presence in Nebraska, but because of this Native Americans viewed them as a very special animal.  The pelts of black-footed ferrets were used in headdresses and in religious ceremonies (Nebraska Game & Parks). 

Plant – Purple Coneflower (Echinacea angustifolia):

Status:  Thriving

Physical description & where/if you’ve seen it:  The purple coneflower is 16 to 28 inches tall with purple, sunflower shaped flowers at the end of long stems (Wikipedia).  These flowers grow wild in many parts of Nebraska, so I have seen them walking through prairies and planted intentionally in my grandmother’s garden.  

Describe how humans have used it: Sioux tribes used the purple coneflower as a cure for many different ailments including:  antidote for snakebites and treatment for headaches or toothaches (Morgan and Weedon).   

Plant – American Licorice (Glycyrhiza lepidota):

Status:  Thriving

Physical description & where/if you’ve seen it: American Licorice grows to be 16 to 40 inches tall, and has long, tough, brown roots (Wikipedia).  They have yellowish flowers along long stalks with clusters of leaves.  I do not believe I have seen these in my hiking, but it is possible that I have seen it and just not known what it was.

Describe how humans have used it: Native American tribes used the American Licorice plant as a general analgesic.  They would boil them for earaches, and rub sore horses with the leaves.  Women were given the roots during childbirth to speed delivery as well (Morgan and Weedon). 

Plant – Sweet Grass (Hierochloe odorata):

Status:  Thriving

Physical description & where/if you’ve seen it: Sweet Grass grows to be only 8 inches tall, but can grow out 40 inches wide.  The leaves are shiny on one side with a purple or red color (Wikipedia). Sweet grass grows natively in much of Nebraska so it is seen in many prairies that I have walked through in my life. 

Describe how humans have used it: Sweet grass has been, and is still, used to purify participants for religious ceremonies and rituals.  It is braided and tied at each end.  They have also been burned as incense for the Sun Dance ceremony of the Sioux tribe (Morgan and Weedon). 

9.  Identify one species of plant or animal in your local area which is threatened, endangered, or locally endangered, or which became extinct in historic times. Explain what destroyed or threatens this species locally, how does or might the absence of this species affect your locality, and what, if any, steps were taken or are being taken to preserve the species. (minimum 100 words)

Animal – Whooping Crane (Grus americana):

The whooping crane is the tallest species of bird in North America.  They have a very long neck and legs.  Their feathers are white with black tips, with bright red feathers on the face and head.  Whooping cranes were once very popular in the Upper Midwest portion of the United States, including Nebraska.  However, they are currently on both the federal and local endangered species lists.  The primary cause of their population decline was unregulated hunting and poaching.  They also experienced a large loss of habitat due to growing roadways, towns, and industries (Nebraska Game & Parks).

Whooping cranes no longer live permanently in Nebraska.  However, they migrate through our state twice per year, once in the spring and once in the fall.  During their migration, they stop in the rivers and lakes across the state, staying in each location for anywhere between two days and three weeks.  While this may not seem like a long time, losing their presence would affect the ecosystem that they visit.  Whooping cranes are omnivores and feed on the aquatic plants and animals of the rivers they stop in (National Wildlife Federation).  If they stop feeding in these places, the population of the animals and plants that they eat will increase, which will in turn cause changes to the environment.  This may be a small change to begin with, but over time it could have a major affect on the ecosystem.  Additionally, the crane migration is often a draw for tourism in Nebraska and many people travel to the lakes and rivers to watch these birds in their natural habitats.  If the birds quit migrating through Nebraska, it would harm the economy as well, reducing the number of tourists and the business that they bring with them. 

Fortunately, conservation efforts are being made to help bring these birds back from the brink of extinction to a flourishing animal once again. Crane Trust is one organization that is working on conservation and research of whooping cranes through habitat protection and maintenance and collecting data about the habitats that cranes choose to use as stopover sites to better provide for them.  They also provide a service called “Whooper Watch” where people can report a sighting of a whooping crane for researchers to get about the cranes and their habitat (Crane Trust). 

10.  Identify one plant or animal species which was introduced to your area and explain how its introduction and continued presence has affected the local ecology and what, if any, steps are being taken to mitigate those effects. (minimum 100 words)

Animal – Norway Rat (Rattus norvegicus):

The Norway rat is found in towns and on farms all across Nebraska.  They are rodents that are 12-18 inches long with a long bald tail and brown fur on the rest of their body.  They are omnivores and eat nearly anything that humans can eat.  However, this is not a species that is native to the United States.  They first came to North America on ships sailing from Europe around 1775 (Nematology Lab at UNL).

Unfortunately, Norway rats have had a negative impact on the local economy.  They cause structural damage to buildings, roads, railroad tracks, and irrigation canals because of the way they chew on structures to get to food.  They also carry several diseases, including typhus and salmonellosis, which can infect both humans and livestock (Nematology Lab at UNL).

Getting rid of Norway rats in Nebraska would be nearly impossible.  However, to mitigate the impact they have it is important to use good sanitation for all food and trash.  Farmers have also tried to use rodent proof construction, rodenticides, and predators such as cats to try to control the number of rats that they have on their property. 

11.  Based on your experiences, meditations, and research, describe what, in your opinion, makes a place seem "natural." (minimum 100 words)

             From my experiences, a natural place isn’t necessarily a place that is free from humans, but is instead a place where I can connect to the natural world.  It’s definitely easier to do that in a place that hasn’t been touched by industry or construction, where the land exists in its native form.  However, it is also possible, and important, to be able to find nature around me and make that connection as often as possible. I am sure this is partly because of how I was raised.  I lived in a small town with lots of undisturbed natural world around me.  However, my grandmother was also a large-scale gardener who nurtured my fascination with the plants and trees.   I grew comfortable in these gardens that she created, but never once thought of them as being “unnatural.” She believed they all had a place in the cycle of life. Simply being outside was a form of connecting to the world and the spirits of the land.  Being in nature and enjoying the world around me is the easiest way to connect, and sometimes, sitting down town surrounded by graffiti, it’s easy to miss the flock of birds overhead or the flowers growing on the side of the road, but my hope is to be able to appreciate even those brief gifts of nature.

12.  Based on your research for Questions 1 above, describe what sort of offering would be appropriate to make to the Nature Spirits in your area, and what would be an appropriate way to make such an offering and why. Discuss the potential ecological consequences of making this offering and ways to modify the offering in order to minimize any negative environmental impact. (minimum 100 words)

            My preferred offerings are items that can be beneficial to the nature spirits and the natural world without disrupting the ecology of the space that we’re using.  When doing rituals at my home, I frequently use birdseed as an offering to help feed the family of wild turkeys and other birds that live in and around my neighborhood. I have also made offerings of grass seeds to help regrow grass in areas that have been damaged by weather or invasive plants.  My goal is to not make offerings in a way that the animals become dependent upon them to survive, but instead to show my gratitude to them.  I also try to vary the location of the offerings so multiple groups can utilize them.

13.  Based on the research and conclusions you have drawn from question 1 through 12, describe how you might further extend your personal and/or group spiritual practices to include the Nature Spirits and other natural elements. (minimum 300 words)

            During the past year, I have tried to incorporate more work with the nature spirits into my personal practice.  I do my meditations outdoors as often as possible in an effort to connect with our land and build a relationship with the spirits there.  I also make offerings of birdseed every few days to the birds that live in our yard.  I would like to start using water as a way to build connections with the trees in my yard as well, as I think that bringing them a gift may help to nurture that connection.

My grove’s spiritual practice tries to be very connected to the natural world, but it’s always a bit of a challenge since we are all on individual paths.  We do make offerings of items that are beneficial to the land and clean up our ritual area to be sure not to leave litter or harmful items behind.  We don’t currently have a permanent structure, but we have discussed developing one in my yard where we frequently hold our rites.  In our rituals we use offerings that are useful to nature, including water and birdseed, instead of things that may be harmful to the ecology or the creatures in the area.  These gifts are given at each high day, but are spaced out enough that animals will not become dependent on them.  I view this as giving them a gift as a thank you for letting us hold our rituals on the land. 

In addition to this, our community service projects have been focused on going into natural areas and cleaning up the litter and garbage left by other people.  Our grove has worked to be very aware of our effect on nature and try to minimize the consequences of us using a space for rituals.   Each fall we have also dedicated one of our rituals exclusively to the Nature Spirits to show our gratitude of them, the sacrifices they make for our sustenance, and the gifts they give to us by sharing the world with us. 

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